References

Geoscientific Instrumentation, Methods and Data Systems

Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst.

2193-0864

Copernicus Publications

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/gi-2-157-2013

Muon radiography for exploration of Mars geology

Kedar

¹ Tanaka

H. K. M.

² Naudet

C. J.

¹ Jones

C. E.

¹ Plaut

J. P.

¹ Webb

F. H.

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA, USA

Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

17 06 2013

2 1 157 164

2013

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

This article is available from https://gi.copernicus.org/articles/2/157/2013/gi-2-157-2013.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://gi.copernicus.org/articles/2/157/2013/gi-2-157-2013.pdf

Muon radiography is a technique that uses naturally occurring showers of muons (penetrating particles generated by cosmic rays) to image the interior of large-scale geological structures in much the same way as standard X-ray radiography is used to image the interior of smaller objects. Recent developments and application of the technique to terrestrial volcanoes have demonstrated that a low-power, passive muon detector can peer deep into geological structures up to several kilometers in size, and provide crisp density profile images of their interior at ten meter scale resolution. Preliminary estimates of muon production on Mars indicate that the near horizontal Martian muon flux, which could be used for muon radiography, is as strong or stronger than that on Earth, making the technique suitable for exploration of numerous high priority geological targets on Mars. The high spatial resolution of muon radiography also makes the technique particularly suited for the discovery and delineation of Martian caverns, the most likely planetary environment for biological activity. <br><br> As a passive imaging technique, muon radiography uses the perpetually present background cosmic ray radiation as the energy source for probing the interior of structures from the surface of the planet. The passive nature of the measurements provides an opportunity for a low power and low data rate instrument for planetary exploration that could operate as a scientifically valuable primary or secondary instrument in a variety of settings, with minimal impact on the mission's other instruments and operation.

References 1

Agostinelli, S., Allison, J., Amako, K., Apostolakis, J., Araujo, H., Arce, P., Asai, M., Axen, D., Banerjee, S., Barrand, G., Behner, F., Bellagamba, L., Boudreau, J., Broglia, L., Brunengo, A., Burkhardt, H., Chauvie, S., Chuma, J., Chytracek, R., Cooperman, G., Cosmo, G., Degtyarenko, P., dell'Acqua, A., Depaola, G., Dietrich, D., Enami, R., Feliciello, A., Ferguson, C., Fesefeldt, H., Folger, G., Foppiano, F., Forti, A., Garelli, S., Giani, S., Giannitrapani, R., Gibin, D., Gómez Cadenas, J. J., González, I., Gracia Abril, G., Greeniaus, G., Greiner, W., Grichine, V., Grossheim, A., Guatelli, S., Gumplinger, P., Hamatsu, R., Hashimoto, K., Hasui, H., Heikkinen, A., Howard, A., Ivanchenko, V., Johnson, A., Jones, F. W., Kallenbach, J., Kanaya, N., Kawabata, M., Kawabata, Y., Kawaguti, M., Kelner, S., Kent, P., Kimura, A., Kodama, T., Kokoulin, R., Kossov, M., Kurashige, H., Lamanna, E., Lampén, T., Lara, V., Lefebure, V., Lei, F., Liendl, M., Lockman, W., Longo, F., Magni, S., Maire, M., Medernach, E., Minamimoto, K., Mora de Freitas, P., Morita, Y., Murakami, K., Nagamatu, M., Nartallo, R., Nieminen, P., Nishimura, T., Ohtsubo, K., Okamura, M., O'Neale, S., Oohata, Y., Paech, K., Perl, J., Pfeiffer, A., Pia, M. G., Ranjard, F., Rybin, A., Sadilov, S., di Salvo, E., Santin, G., Sasaki, T., Savvas, N., Sawada, Y., Scherer, S., Sei, S., Sirotenko, V., Smith, D., Starkov, N., Stoecker, H., Sulkimo, J., Takahata, M., Tanaka, S., Tcherniaev, E., Safai Tehrani, E., Tropeano, M., Truscott, P., Uno, H., Urban, L., Urban, P., Verderi, M., Walkden, A., Wander, W., Weber, H., Wellisch, J. P., Wenaus, T., Williams, D. C., Wright, D., Yamada, T., Yoshida, H., and Zschiesche, D.: Geant4 – a simulation toolkit, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, 506, 270–278, 2003.

Alvarez, L. W., Anderson, J. A., El Bedwei, F., Burkhard, J., Fakhry, A., Girgis, A., Goneid, A., Hassan, F., Iverson, D., Lynch, G., Miligy, Z., Moussa, A. H., Sharkawi, M., and Yazolino, L.: Search for Hidden Chambers in the Pyramids, Science, 167, 832–839, 1970.

Anderson, E. W., Lindsey, C. S., Wang, C. H., Hojvat, C., Reeves, D., and Turkot, F.: A scintillator hodoscope at the tevatron collider, Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, 295, 86–93, 1990.

Berringer, J., Arguin, J.-F., Barnett, R. M. et al.: Particle Data Group, Phys. Rev. D, 86, 010001, 2012.

Boston, P. J., Frederick, R. D., Welch, S. M., Werker, J., Meyer, T. R., Sprungman, B., Hildreth-Werker, V., and Thompson, S. L.: Extraterrestrial Subsurface Technology Test Bed: Human Use and Scientific Value of Martian Caves Space Tech. & Applic. Forum 2003 Bull. AIP {#}654, Amer. Inst. of Physics, College Park, MD, 2004.

Cushing, G. E., Titus, T. N., Wynne, J. J., and Christensen, P. R.: THEMIS observes possible cave skylights on Mars, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L17201, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007GL030709">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL030709</a>, 2007.

Dundas, C. M., Mellon, M. T., McEwen, A. S., Lefort, A., Keszthelyi, L. P., and Thomas, N.: HiRISE observations of fractured mounds: Possible Martian pingos, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L04201, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031798">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031798</a>, 2008.

Flaser, F. M.: The Dynamic Meteorology of Titian, Planet. Space Sci., 46, 1125–1147, 1998.

Gaisser, T. K.: Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-33931-6, 1990.

George, E. P.: Cosmic Rays Measure Overburden of Tunnel, Commonwealth Engineer, 455–457, 1955.

Gierasch, P. J. and Toon, O. B.: Atmospheric Pressure Variation and the Climate of Mars, J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 1502–1508, 1973.

Grieder, P. K. F.: Cosmic Rays At Earth, Elsevier, ISBN 0-444-50710-8, 2001.

Grotzinger, J. P., Crisp, J., Vasavada, A. R., Anderson, R. C., Baker, C. J., Barry, R., Blake, D. F., Conrad, P., Edgett, K. S., Ferdowski, B., Gellert, R., Gilbert, J. B., Golombek, M., Gómez-Elvira, J., Hassler, D. M., Jandura, L., Litvak, M., Mahaffy, P., Maki, J., Meyer, M., Malin, M. C., Mitrofanov, I., Simmonds, J. J., Vaniman, D., Welch, R. V., and Wiens, R. C.: Mars Science Laboratory Mission and Science Investigation, Space Sci. Rev., 170, 5–56, 2012.

Heggy, E., Paillou, P., Costard, F., Mangold, N., Ruffie, G., Demontoux, F., Grandjean, G., and Malezieux, J. M.: Local Geoelectrical Models of the Martian Subsurface for Shallow Groundwater Detection Using Sounding Radars, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8030, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JE001871">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JE001871</a>, 2003.

Holt, J. W., Safaeinili, A., Plaut, J. J., Head, J. W., Phillips, R. J., Seu, R., Kempf, S. D., Choudhary, P., Young, D. A., Putzig, N. E., Biccari, D., and Gim, Y.: Radar sounding evidence for buried glaciers in the southern mid-latitudes of Mars, Science, 322, 1235, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1164246">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1164246</a>, 2008.

Knapmeyer, M., Oberst, J., Hauber, E., Wahlisch, M., Deuchler, C., and Wagner R.: Working Models for Spatial Distribution and Level of Mars' Seismicity, J. Geophys. Res., 111, E11006, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JE002708">https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JE002708</a>, 2006.

Lanagan, P. D., McEwen, A. S., Keszthelyi, L. P., and Thordarson, T.: Rootless cones on Mars indicating the presence of shallow equatorial ground ice in recent times, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2365–2367, 2001.

Lopez-Moreno, J. J., Molina-Cuberos, J. J., Hamelin, M., Grard, R., Simoes, F., Godard, R., Schwingenschuh, K., Beghin, C., Berthelier, J. J., Brown, V. J. G., Falkner, P., Ferri, F., Fulchignoni, M., Jernej, I., Jeronimo, J. M., Rodrigo, R., and Trautner, R.: Structure of Titan's low altitude ionized layer from the Relaxation Probe onboard HUYGENS, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L22104, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035338">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL035338</a>, 2008.

Plaut, J. J., Picardi, G. Safaeinili, A., Ivanov, A., Milkovich, S. M., Cicchetti, A., Kofman, W., Mouginot, J., Farrell, W. M., Phillips, R. J., Clifford, S. M., Frigeri, A., Orosei, R., Federico, C., Williams, I. P., Gurnett, D. A., Nielsen, E., Hagfors, T., Heggy, E., Stofan, E. R., Plettemeier, D., Watters, T. R., Leuschen, C. J., and Edenhofer, P.: Subsurface Radar Sounding of the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars, Science, 316, 92–95, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1139672">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1139672</a>, 2007.

Plaut, J. J., Safaeinili, A., Holt, J. W., Phillips, R. J., Head, J. W., Seu, R., Putzig, N. E., and Frigeri, A.: Radar evidence for ice in lobate debris aprons in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L02203, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036379">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036379</a>, 2008.

Reichenbacher, J. and De Jong, J.: Calculation of the Underground Muon Intensity Crouch Curve from a Parameterization of the Flux at Surface, 30th International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC07), 2007.

Smith, D. E., Zuber, M. T., Solomon, S. C., Phillips, R. J., Head, J. W., Garvin, J. B., Banerdt, W. B., Muhleman, D. O., Pettengill, G. H., Neumann, G. A., Lemoine, F. G., Abshire, J. B., Aharonson, O., Brown, C. D., Hauck, S. A., Ivanov, A. B., McGovern, P. J., Zwally, H. J., and Duxbury, T. C.: The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution, Science, 284, 5419, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5419.1495">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5419.1495</a>, 1999.

Taira, H. and Tanaka, H. K. M.: A potential space- and power – effective muon sensor module for imaging a volcano, Earth Planet. Space, 62, 179–186, 2010.

Tanaka, H.: Monte-Carlo simulations of atmospheric muon production: Implication of the past martian environment, Icarus, 191, 603–615, 2007.

Tanaka, H. K. M.: Volume slicing with mulit-directional muon radiography, International Workshop on "Muon and Neutrino Radiography", 17–20 April, 2012.

Tanaka, H., Nagamine, K., Kawamura, N., Nakamura, S. N., Ishida, K., and Shimomura, K.: Development of the cosmic-ray muon detection system for probing internal-structure of a volcano, Hyperfine Interact., 138, 521–526, 2001.

Tanaka, H., Nakano, T., Takahashi, S., Yoshida, J., Takeo, M., Ohminato, T., Aoki, Y., Koyama, E., Tsuji, H., Ohshima, H., Maekawa, T., Watanabe, H., and Niwa, K.: Radiographic Imaging Below a Volcanic Crater Floor With Cosmic-Ray Muons, Am. J. Sci., 308, 843–850, 2008.

Tanaka, H., Uchida, T., Tanaka, M., Shinohara, H., and Taira, H.: Cosmic-Ray Muon Imaging of Magma in a Conduit: Degassing Process of Satsuma-Iwojima Volcano, Japan, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L01304, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036451">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036451</a>, 2009a.

Tanaka, H., Uchida, T., Tanaka, M., Takeo, M., Oikawa, J., Ohminato, T., Nakano, T., Aoki, Y., Koyama, E., and Tsuji, H.: Detecting a Mass Change Inside a Volcano by Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography (Muography): First Results from Measurements at Asama Volcano, Japan, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L17302, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039448">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039448</a>, 2009b.

Tanaka, H. K. M., Taira, H., Uchida, T., Tanaka, M., Takeo, M., Ohiminato, T., and Tsuji, H.: Three-dimensional computational axial tomography scan of a volcano with cosmic ray muon radiograph, J. Geophys. Res., 115, B12332, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JB007677">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JB007677</a>, 2010.

Uchida, T., Tanaka, H. K. M., and Tanaka, M.: Space Saving and Power Efficient Readout System for Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography, IEEE T. Nucl. Sci., 56, 448–452, 2009.

Williams, K. E., McKay, C. P., Toon, O. B., and Head, J. W.: Do Ice Caves exist on Mars?, Icarus, 209, 358–368, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2010.03.039">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2010.03.039</a>, 2010.